When Saints Become Spirits: Indigenous Appropr...

When Saints Become Spirits: Indigenous Appropriations of Christian Iconography in Colonial Mexico

The history of Christianity is not a monolithic narrative emanating solely from Rome. Instead, it is a tapestry woven with threads of diverse cultures and interpretations, often forged in the crucible of colonial encounter. This post, offered for consideration by the readers of Ecclesia Historia, explores one such thread: the appropriation and reinterpretation of Christian iconography by Indigenous communities in colonial Mexico. This dynamic process, far from passive adoption, involved a profound act of cultural agency, transforming symbols of conquest into expressions of Indigenous identity and spiritual resilience. Examining these appropriations allows us to move beyond a simplistic narrative of conversion and understand the complexities of religious syncretism – the blending of different religious beliefs and practices – that shaped the religious landscape of colonial Latin America and continues to resonate today. This perspective challenges the idea of a purely “European” Christianity, revealing the active role of Indigenous peoples in shaping its meaning and expression.

The Conquest and the Cross: Initial Encounters

The arrival of the Spanish conquistadores in the early 16th century marked a turning point in the history of Mesoamerica. With them came not only military force but also a fervent zeal to convert the Indigenous population to Christianity. The misiones, or missions, established by various religious orders, such as the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians, became centers of evangelization. These orders employed a variety of methods to spread their message, including preaching, teaching, and the construction of churches and convents. Central to this process was the introduction of Christian iconography: images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and various saints, intended to convey key theological concepts.

However, the Indigenous peoples of Mexico were not a blank slate. They possessed rich and complex religious traditions, including sophisticated cosmological beliefs, elaborate rituals, and a deep connection to the natural world. Faced with the imposition of a new faith, they responded in a variety of ways, ranging from outright resistance to selective adoption and adaptation. This process of adaptation is where the reinterpretation of Christian iconography becomes particularly fascinating.

Latin Terminology & Context: Understanding the nuances of the colonial period requires grappling with key Latin terms. Evangelizatio (Evangelization) describes the explicit propagation of the Christian faith. Missio (Mission) referred to not only the activity of spreading the gospel but also to the physical settlement established for this purpose. Syncretismus (Syncretism), while a modern term, describes the blending of religious practices that characterized much of the colonial religious experience. Understanding these terms helps contextualize the historical realities.

The Virgin of Guadalupe: A Case Study in Syncretism

Perhaps the most iconic example of Indigenous appropriation of Christian iconography in Mexico is the Virgin of Guadalupe. According to Catholic tradition, the Virgin Mary appeared to an Indigenous peasant named Juan Diego in 1531 on Tepeyac Hill, a site previously venerated as the temple of the Aztec earth goddess Tonantzin. The Virgin, speaking in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, requested that a church be built in her honor. Juan Diego presented this request to the Spanish bishop, who demanded proof. The Virgin then miraculously imprinted her image on Juan Diego's tilma (cloak), which is now enshrined in the Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City.

While the Catholic Church presents the Virgin of Guadalupe as a purely Christian figure, many scholars argue that her image and the circumstances of her apparition are deeply intertwined with Indigenous beliefs. The location of the apparition on Tepeyac Hill, the use of Nahuatl, and the dark complexion of the Virgin all suggest a deliberate attempt to connect the new faith with existing Indigenous traditions. Moreover, the Virgin's image, with its flowing robes and crescent moon at her feet, bears a striking resemblance to depictions of Tonantzin, the Aztec mother goddess.

Serge Gruzinski, in his book The Mestizo Mind: The Intellectual Life and Identity of the New World, 1500-1700, argues that the Virgin of Guadalupe became a powerful symbol of Indigenous identity and resistance. By identifying with the Virgin, Indigenous people could subtly assert their cultural heritage within the framework of Christianity. The Virgin of Guadalupe became a symbol of hope and liberation, representing a bridge between the Indigenous past and the colonial present.

Beyond Guadalupe: Other Examples of Appropriation

The appropriation of Christian iconography was not limited to the Virgin of Guadalupe. Across colonial Mexico, Indigenous communities reinterpreted other Christian symbols and figures to reflect their own cultural and spiritual values.

• Saints as Patrons of Indigenous Communities: Indigenous communities often adopted specific saints as their patron saints, integrating them into their traditional social and religious structures. These saints were often associated with particular skills or occupations, reflecting the economic activities of the community. The saints were also incorporated into Indigenous festivals and celebrations, often accompanied by traditional music, dance, and offerings. This process allowed Indigenous communities to maintain their cultural identity while outwardly adhering to Christian practices.
• The Passion of Christ and Indigenous Suffering: The suffering of Christ on the cross resonated deeply with the Indigenous experience of conquest and oppression. Indigenous artists often depicted Christ with Indigenous features and placed the crucifixion scene in a Mexican landscape, emphasizing the connection between Christ's suffering and their own. The Passion narratives also provided a framework for understanding and coping with the trauma of colonialism.
• Angels and Feathered Deities: The figure of the angel, a ubiquitous image in Christian art, was often reinterpreted as a representation of pre-Columbian feathered deities. The wings of the angels, for example, were seen as symbolic of the power and flight associated with these deities. This reinterpretation allowed Indigenous communities to incorporate elements of their traditional cosmology into the Christian framework.

Material Culture as Evidence: The study of material culture – objects and artifacts created and used by people in the past – provides valuable insights into the appropriation of Christian iconography. Examples include:

• Church Murals: Murals in colonial churches, often painted by Indigenous artists, frequently incorporate Indigenous symbols and motifs alongside Christian imagery. These murals provide visual evidence of the blending of cultures and the reinterpretation of religious beliefs.
• Sculptures and Carvings: Indigenous artisans carved sculptures and figurines of Christian figures that incorporated traditional Indigenous artistic styles and materials. These objects demonstrate the creative agency of Indigenous artists and their ability to imbue Christian symbols with their own cultural meaning.
• Textiles and Clothing: Indigenous textiles and clothing, often used in religious ceremonies and festivals, incorporated Christian symbols and motifs, reflecting the integration of Christianity into Indigenous cultural practices.

Why This Matters: Reframing the Narrative of Conversion

The study of Indigenous appropriations of Christian iconography challenges the traditional narrative of conversion, which often portrays Indigenous people as passive recipients of European culture and religion. Instead, it reveals a more complex and nuanced picture, one in which Indigenous communities actively shaped the religious landscape of colonial Mexico through their own creative agency and cultural resilience.

By recognizing the active role of Indigenous peoples in shaping Christianity, we can gain a deeper understanding of the dynamics of cultural exchange and syncretism that characterized the colonial period. This perspective also has implications for understanding contemporary religious practices in Mexico and other parts of Latin America, where Indigenous traditions continue to blend with Christian beliefs.

Moreover, this lens highlights the power of visual culture in shaping religious identity and meaning. By examining the ways in which Indigenous communities reinterpreted Christian iconography, we can appreciate the role of art and material culture in mediating religious experience and fostering cultural resilience.

In conclusion, the story of Indigenous appropriations of Christian iconography in colonial Mexico is a powerful reminder of the complexities of cultural encounter and the enduring power of Indigenous agency. By examining this story through the lens of material culture, we can move beyond simplistic narratives of conquest and conversion and gain a richer understanding of the vibrant and multifaceted history of Christianity in the Americas. It serves as a reminder that even within systems of oppression, cultures find ways to express themselves, to resist, and to ultimately reshape the narrative of their own spiritual experience. The saints became spirits, imbued with new meanings, reflecting the enduring resilience and creative power of the Indigenous people of Mexico.

Further Reading:

• Gruzinski, Serge. The Mestizo Mind: The Intellectual Life and Identity of the New World, 1500-1700. Translated by Deke Dusinberre. New York: Routledge, 2002.
• Peterson, Jeanette Favrot. Visualizing Guadalupe: From Black Madonna to Queen of the Americas. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2014.
• Taylor, William B. Drinking, Homicide & Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979.